January, 2007
by: Jack Hughes
- The Church and Church Issues
In previous Calvary Reviews we have examined various forms of church government. So far we have looked at the Episcopal and Congregational forms of church government. In this Calvary Review we will look at the Presbyterian form of government. The model presented below is representative not inclusive.
The word Presbyterian comes from the Greek word presbuteros which is usually translated “elder” in most English translations of the Bible. An Elder, in a biblical sense, is a godly, gifted, and trained man whose exemplary life qualifies him to be appointed to the office of elder. The Apostle Paul gives two lists of elder qualifications in I Tim. 3:1-7 and Tit. 1:5-9 that must be met by every elder.
Some refer to Presbyterian government as “elder rule” but as we shall learn in a future Calvary Review there are elder rule forms of church government that are not Presbyterian. Presbyterianism teaches that Christ is the head of the church and that elders exist as Christ’s undershepherds to do His will as revealed in the Scriptures. Presbyterianism is, like Episcopal government, hierarchical in structure. However, within the hierarchy all positions are held by elders. We will start with the lowest level of elder authority in the Presbyterian church and work our way up from there.
“The Session,” sometimes referred to as a “consistory” or in Scotland “a kirk–session,” is composed of elders appointed by a local church. Presbyterianism believes there are two classes of elders i.e., ruling elders and teaching elders. The ruling elders are the lay elders of the local church and the teaching elder is the elder who is paid to preach and teach. The teaching elder is often referred to as “the Minister.” The Minister in some local Presbyterian churches leads the entire worship service and is looked upon as the person who is to “perform the ministry.” When the elders of the local church gather to do church business, the teaching elder presides over the ruling elders, and though all are said to have equal say and authority, the teaching elder does have a position of authority over the ruling elders and in practice usually wields more power. Each local church is then governed by its Session.
“The Presbytery,” sometimes referred to as a “colloquy” or “classis,” is composed of ordained or teaching elders and one ruling elder from each of the local churches represented. This creates a balance of power in the Presbytery between the teaching and ruling elders. A moderator is then selected among the teaching elders to lead the Presbytery. The Presbytery provides leaders from various churches with the opportunity to work together on problems and issues facing the local churches.
“The Synod,” includes a number of presbyteries and functions as kind of a court of appeals for difficult issues. A teaching elder is selected as moderator from one of the Presbyteries represented. Decisions made by the Synod are then passed down through the Presbytery, to the Sessions, and from the Sessions to the people in a local church. In some Presbyterian churches the Synod is the highest level of authority.
“The General Assembly,” is an annual meeting of elders, both ruling and teaching, who are selected from the various Presbyteries to partake in the General Assembly. The General Assembly discusses major issues and the general health of the overall church. In the Presbyterian Church of the United States the General Assembly makes final administrative and legislative decisions for all local Presbyterian Churches within its denomination.
In summary it can be seen that the Presbyterian form of government is very hierarchical, just as the Episcopalian form of government is, yet instead of having multiple offices e.g., Pope, Cardinal, Bishop, Priest” there is one office of elder divided into two kinds, ruling and teaching. The levels of authority come from Sessions, Presbyteries, Synods, and General Assemblies, which are all composed of elders from local churches. The general purpose of the various ruling bodies according to The New Dictionary of Theology is to serve as, “a ministry of creative oversight and review. In particular, they are to remedy local injustices, to ensure the maximum cooperation between local churches and to encourage the strong to help the weak” (pg. 145).
History of Presbyterianism Government
The Presbyterian form of church government sprung up from the teaching of John Calvin. Calvin came to believe from his study of the Scriptures that elders were to rule the local church (Institutes IV. iii-v). While Calvin was reforming Geneva, in Great Britain, Henry the VIII broke away from the Roman Catholic Church and established the Anglican Church (also Church of England or Episcopal Church). Anglicanism was at first very similar to Roman Catholicism. But, over time, it grew away from Roman Catholicism doctrinally and became more scriptural, being influenced by the teachings of Calvin whose teachings were summarized in the Helvetic Confession (1566) and later by the Synod of Dort (1618).
As the Reformation continued to spread throughout England, another group arose who believed all practices of the church and life needed to be subject to the Scriptures. They were labeled the Puritans. During the peak of the Puritan movement (around 1650) the study of the Bible and biblical preaching became popular. An entire generation of godly Bible scholars and preachers arose the likes of which the world had never seen. These men, influenced by the teachings of John Calvin and the study of the Scriptures, came to believe that many of the practices of the Anglican Church could not be supported by the Bible. In an attempt to unify the Reformed Anglican with the convictions of the Puritans, the Westminster Assembly was convened by Long Parliament to bring unity to the Reformed churches.
The Westminster Assembly met from 1643 to 1649. Among those who met were 121 pastors, 10 Lords, and 20 commoners. A great majority of these men were diligent students of the Bible and gifted preachers of the Word. While the Westminster Assembly convened, they labored to put down in writing the essential doctrines and practices common to all Reformed churches. The documents produced by the Westminster Assembly are often referred to as the “Westminster Standards,” a collection of documents.
The first and foremost document produced by the Assembly was The Westminster Confession, completed in 1646. Though originally commissioned by the English Parliament in an attempt to give the Anglican Church a government structure more acceptable to the Puritans, it was in the end rejected. However the document itself endured and was adopted by the Church of Scotland in 1647, the Presbyterian churches, and many independent Reformed churches. History has proven it to be the most influential confession ever produced by the Reformed English speaking church. About two thirds of the Westminster Confession deals with doctrinal issues, the remaining third address issues related to public worship and proper Christian behavior in the world.
The Westminster Larger Catechism is another document included in the Westminster Standards. The Westminster Larger Catechism practically applies the doctrines of the Westminster Confession to life, just as the book of Deuteronomy practically applies laws from Exodus, Numbers, and Leviticus to the lives of the Jews. Many who participated in the Westminster Assembly were Puritans and their zeal to put the truth into practice was a motivation to produce the larger catechism.
The Westminster Shorter Catechism was also written during the time the assembly met. It was written in a question and answer format to train “those of weaker faith” in the essentials of Christian doctrine as stated in the Westminster Confession. These three documents then provided the doctrinal foundation for Presbyterian beliefs and the seed information for the Presbyterian form of Church government.
Biblical Rationale for Presbyterian Government
Support for elders ruling the church is easy to find in the New Testament Scriptures. Texts like I Thess. 5:12; Heb. 13:17; I Tim. 5:17; and I Pet. 5:1-5 indicate that God requires that qualified elders rule, oversee, shepherd, and manage the people and affairs of the local church. The Bible knows nothing of Popes, Cardinals, or kings ruling the church, except for the Lord Jesus Christ himself who rules the church through the Word of God and qualified elders. In I Tim. 3:1-7 and Titus 1:5-9 qualifications for an elder are given.
Justification for different levels of presiding elders and various councils is taken from passages such as Acts 15:1-35, 16:1-4 where we see the Apostles gathering together to make discussions for the church and James being the primary spokesman at what is often referred to as “the Jerusalem council.” It is inferred that the church had regular general assemblies and councils to discuss critical issues.
Objections to Presbyterianism
Though the basic principle of elders ruling the church is easy to prove from the New Testament, several aspects of Presbyterianism are not so easily proven. Some see no biblical support whatsoever for Presbyteries, Synods, and General assemblies. Though the Acts 15 council is acknowledged, it is pointed out that what is “described” in the Scriptures is not necessarily “prescribed” for the entire church. The details recorded in Acts are unique. The church was young, the apostles were still alive, it was a time of transitioning away from Judaism towards Christianity. There is no indication that regular councils met to discuss certain issues and certainly no instruction in any of the letters to the church to do so.
It is true that the Bible mentions that James spoke up (Acts 15:13-21) but it is also true that Peter also spoke up (Acts 15:7-11) and that there was “much debate” which is not even recorded (vs. 7). So it is a stretch to say that James was the appointed spokesman just because his opinion was well received. It must also be noted that those who gathered at the Jerusalem council did so voluntarily and it was not an established ruling body. Also there is no mention of Paul and Barnabas organizing those elders whom they appointed in various churches into a ruling group outside the local church (Acts 14:23). It must also be noted that some early Presbyterians felt that the New Testament church’s government had to match that of Judaism for ease of transition. Though logical, this idea cannot be supported from Scripture.
Presbyterianism’s belief in two kinds of elders is also difficult to support from Scripture. The Bible does instruct the church to consider those elders who work hard at preaching and teaching to be financially supported by the church (I Tim. 5:17). Yet all elders are to be “able to teach” (I Tim. 3:2) and to be able to “exhort in sound doctrine and to refute those who contradict” (Tit. 1:9). The Bible never makes a distinction between teaching and ruling elders for all elders are to rule and teach. The distinction is between those who are paid and those who are not paid to do what all elders are called to do.
Finally Presbyterian government finds both strength and weakness in the Reformed tradition itself. In a desire to simplify and condense doctrine it can lead people away from studying the Bible. John Calvin studies the Scriptures and systematizes the truth he finds in the Word of God in his Institutes. His Institutes are synthesized by the Helvetic Confession, and after that by the Synod of Dort, and after that the Westminster Assembly, who produce the Westminster Confession, and then the Larger and shorter Catechisms from the confession. While the study of creeds and confessions are helpful summaries of the truth, we must never forget that they are fallible works of men and not inspired. We are never told to memorize creeds but are commanded to read, study, memorize and meditate on the Word of God alone and to take our doctrine from the Scriptures alone.